Literature Review
Sexual harassment includes unwanted statements and jokes, gestures encompassing sexual elements, continuously asking a person for a date after disapproval, or demanding sexual favors or interaction for employment and promotions (Chamberlain et al., 2008). In the context of Pakistan, a qualitative study highlights that sexual harassment includes behaviors such as gazing, touching, bullying, undesirable jokes and statements, putting hands on women’s shoulders and back, touching of hips, sitting in more physical proximity, using offensive body language, emails and text messages containing sexual elements (Sadruddin, 2013). An extensive review of the literature reveals that sexual harassment is a major impediment to women’s professional success (McLaughlin et al., 2017; Phillips, 2020). Globally, sexual harassment is prevalent in all organizational structures, and the academic institutions are no exception (Phillips, 2020; Raj et al., 2020; Thakur & Kumar, 2019). It is a pervasive problem in academia and is more often directed towards women.
Harassment is one of the main factors hindering women’s advancement to the top administrative and academic levels (Phillips, 2020; Yousaf & Schmiede, 2016). It is the most vulnerable form of gender-based violence that is observed at all levels and disciplines in universities and used as form of glass ceiling (Bondestam & Lundqvist, 2020). Women leaders, who become successful in achieving the positions of power in academia, confront greater sexual harassment in addition to other factors such as lack of leadership training, insufficient mentoring and networking experiences, and work-life conflict (Raj et al., 2020; Yousaf & Schmiede, 2016).
A study highlighting sexual harassment of women supervisors in US, Japan and Sweden, revealed that women who supervised mostly men, reported greater incidences of sexual harassment (30 percent more) in all three countries in contrast to women who supervised mostly women (Folke et al., 2020). This includes sexual remarks, insult, disrespectful statements and jokes, and vulgar remarks. Many studies indicate that almost a quarter of the complaints of workplace harassment are alleged against men at senior positions and it is commonly aimed at reducing women’s likelihood to attain top hierarchical positions (Folke et al., 2020; McLaughlin et al., 2017).
Attempts of sexual harassment are often perpetrated by same status co-workers (Folke et al., 2020; Oguntoyinbo, 2014). Peer harassment has negative consequences on women’s professional as well as personal lives. A study on women leadership in top universities by Oguntoyinbo (2014) reveals that women are discouraged in attaining the positions of power by their male counterparts, and if they become successful in achieving senior executive roles, they are exposed to greater risk of being harassed by their colleagues due to the discouragement, and lack of family and professional support.
Women in highly developed countries of the world such as Australia, Canada, and United States also experience sexual harassment in their workplace (National Academies of Sciences, Engineering, and Medicine, 2018; Castner, 2019; Raj et al., 2020). In a longitudinal study to analyze the workplace harassment among women medical faculty, Raj et al. (2020) report that harassment becomes more severe for women trying to reach higher academic positions. Top-down harassment has more negative consequences for women, i.e. job withdrawal or fear of losing a job, decreased job satisfaction, emotional and psychological disorders, and ill health (Bondestam & Lundqvist, 2020; Tenbrunsel et al., 2019).
Working women in Asian countries like Malaysia, Singapore, Bangladesh and Pakistan also experience varied effects of sexual harassment due to its unique socio-cultural context (Bader et al., 2018; Thakur & Kumar, 2019). Bader et al. (2018) highlights that in Bangladesh, increased women’s participation in the workforce and higher social mobility has a close association with the greater incidences of sexual harassment. Consequently, working women are more endangered and face double jeopardy.
In Pakistan, educational institutions tuitions are replete with cases of sexual harassment, which is utilized as a tool by men to control women (Khokhar, 2018; Yousaf & Schmiede, 2016). Moreover, harassment is visible at all levels of the academic hierarchy that leads toward the invisibility of women in executive roles (Khokhar, 2018; Thakur & Kumar, 2019). This trend could be a strategic power-based plan to keep Pakistani women in a disadvantaged status. In a study highlighting the impact of harassment on women’s participation in academic leadership, Yousaf and Schmiede (2016), find that harassment hinders women leaders’ career advancement in the universities. In particular, women working under the leadership of men continue to develop obstacles in their professional development.
Table of Contents
- Introduction
- Theoretical Framework
- Literature Review
- Methodology
- Key Findings
- Discussion
- Conclusions and Implications
- References