Theoretical Framework
This study is motivated by the postmodern theoretical assumptions of Michael Foucault and two famous feminist scholars, Dorothy Smith and Rewyn Connell, to examine and evaluate the existing discourses and power relations that legitimize acts of sexual harassment in academic institutes in Pakistan. Foucault (2000) argues that power hierarchies and manifestations are systematically controlled by the institutions through the use of knowledge and ideas. Foucault writes, “Finally, I believe that this will to knowledge, thus reliant upon institutional support and distribution tends to exercise a sort of pressure, a power of constraint upon other forms of discourse” (Foucault, 1971, p.11).
While Foucault’s manifestation of power and knowledge has not considered and discussed gender as a separate issue as such, several feminist scholars such as Bordo (1993), Fraser (1992) and Weedon (1997) have built on his work and debated gender issues. This lens facilitates us in understanding harassment as a discursive phenomenon that is utilized to strengthen traditional male power in societies. Post-modern feminists put women at the center of their analysis to uncover women’s lived experiences about gender disparities, violence, and harassment. This study has incorporated Connell’s assumption of ‘hegemonic masculinity’ to investigate the discursive construction of leadership norms in the academia. The ‘hegemonic masculinity’ is defined as a cultural norm that endorses the traditional power of men and restrains women from attaining and maintaining leadership positions (Connell & Messerschmidt, 2005, p. 832).
In addition, Dorothy Smith’s notion of standpoint and ruling class ideology guided this study in the reflexive understanding of women’s experiences of the workplace harassment. Smith argues that the ruling class ideology is found in all organizations that are largely influenced by the “male subtext”; therefore, women are “excluded from the practices of power within textually mediated relationships of the ruling” (Smith, 1987, p.4). Incorporating postmodern theoretical underpinnings of Foucault, Connell, and Smith facilitated in understanding the socio-cultural context of harassment experienced by women leaders in Pakistani universities.
3 We recognize that sexual harassment can include men being harassed by women in powerful positions and also gender diverse people (Hijras in the Pakistani context, for example) experience such harassment, since sexual harassment is ultimately an act of power seeking to uphold the hegemonic gender order. However, in the context of this research we focus on sexual harassment of women by men.
Table of Contents
- Introduction
- Theoretical Framework
- Literature Review
- Methodology
- Key Findings
- Discussion
- Conclusions and Implications
- References